Cattle movement as a function of some biotic and abiotic factors in a tropical pasture
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22267/rcia.223902.184Keywords:
Animal behavior, landscape, silvopastoralism, remote sensingAbstract
The research question is how do some biotic and abiotic variables, under a silvopastoral system exert influence on the animal movement? These studies have been carried out through different approaches and have included analyses from empirical to statistical. The aim of this study was to relate cattle grazing sites with some biotic and abiotic factors under a silvopastoral system. The fieldwork was carried out in a paddock of the farm La Reforma located in the upper part of the Magdalena River basin (Tolima, Colombia). Through global positioning devices (GPS), movement, grazing route, and resting data that cattle perform in these habitats during daytime hours were obtained. Six cows (460 kg live weight, not pregnant) were monitored during two periods of the year at one-minute time intervals. Data were processed in a geographic information systems (GIS) environment, and mechanisms and algorithms were used to establish an association of moving animals with some biotic (pasture productivity and cover, trees, and floristic composition) and abiotic factors (climatological season, access to drinking and salt troughs). The results suggest an association between animal movement concerning the different attractants for which the drinking and salt troughs in the paddocks were relevant. In conclusion, the analysis of animal behavior at the landscape level is useful for decision-making in the design of livestock landscapes.
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References
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Bailey DW, Gross JE, Laca EA, Rittenhouse LR, Coughenour MB, Swift DM y Sims PL 2774 (1996) Mechanisms that result in large herbivore grazing distribution patterns. Journal of Range Management 49:386-400 27752776.
Bailey DW y Welling GR (1999) Modification of cattle grazing distribution with dehydrated molasses supplement. Journal of Range Management 52:575-582.
Bailey DW y Delyn Jensen (2008) Method of Supplementation May Affect Cattle 2787 Grazing Patterns. Rangeland Ecology and Management 61:131-135 2788.
Bailey DW y Provenza FD (2008) Mechanism determining large-herbivore distribution. 2789 En: Prince H y Langevelde F (eds) Resource Ecology: Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Foraging. Springer, pp 7-28.
Bailey DW y VanWagoner HC (2004) Can we improve livestock distribution with 2781 selection? Abstract, Society for Range Management Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, 2782 Utah 2783.
Bailey DW y Welling GR (2007) Evaluation of low moisture blocks and conventional dry mixes for supplementing minerals and modifying cattle grazing patterns. 2785 Rangeland Ecology and Management 60:54-64 2786.
Bailey DW, Welling GR y Miller ET (2001) Cattle use of foothills rangeland near dehydrated molasses supplement. Journal of Range Management 54:338-347.
Bavera, G.A., 2004. Comportamiento etológico de bovinos de carne. Curso de producción bovina de carne. Cap. IV. Facultad Agronomía y Veterinaria. Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto. Córdoba, Argentina.
Brew, M.N.; Myer, R.O.; Hersom, M.J.; Carter, J. N.; Elzo, M.A., Hansen, G.R.; Riley, D.G. (2011). Water intake and factors affecting water intake of growing beef cattle. Livestock Science, 140(1), 297-300.
Brosh, A., Henkin, Z., Orlov, A., Aharoni, Y., 2006. Diet composition and energy balance of cows grazing on Mediterranean woodland. Livestock Science 102, 11–22.
Chambers, A. R. M., Hodgson, J. & Milne, J. A. (1981). Grass and Forage Science 36, 97–105.
Charnov, E. L. 1976. Optimal foraging: the marginal value theorem. Theoretical Population Biology 9:129–136.
Cibils AF y Coughenour MB (2001) Impact of grazing management on the productivity 2907 of cold temperate grasslands of Southern Patagonia-a critical assessment. International 2908 Grassland Congress. Sao Pedro, Sao Paulo, Brasil, pp 807- 811.
Clawson, J. E., 1993. The use of off-stream water developments and various water gap configurations to modify the watering behavior of cattle. MSc Thesis, Oregon State.
Collantes MB y Faggi AM (1999) Los humedales del sur de Sudamérica. En: Malvárez 2924 AI (ed) Tópicos sobre humedales subtropicales y templados de Sudamérica. 2925 UNESCO-MAB-ORCYT. Montevideo, Uruguay, pp 15-26.
Coughenour MB (1991) Spatial components of plant-herbivore interactions in pastoral, 2931 ranching, and native ungulate ecosystems. Journal of range management 44:530-542.
Davis J. D., Darr M. J. Xin H., Harmon J. D. (2011), “Development of a GPS Herd Activity and Well Being Kit (GPS HAWK) to Monitor Cattle Behavior and the Effect of Sample Interval on Travel Distance”, Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering.
Depew, J. J. (2004). Habitat Selection and Movement Patterns of Cattle and white-tailed deer in a temperate savanna. Texas A&M University.
Di Rienzo J.A., Casanoves F., Balzarini M.G., Gonzalez L., Tablada M., Robledo C.W. InfoStat versión 2015. Grupo InfoStat, FCA, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Argentina. URL http://www.infostat.com.ar.
Galloso, M. A., 2007. Comportamiento alimentario de novillas Siboney de Cuba en un sistema silvopastoril. Universidad De Matanzas Camilo Cienfuegos.
Ganskopp (2001) Manipulating cattle distribution with salt and water in large arid land 2986 pastures: GPS/GIS assessment. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 73:251-262.
George MR, McDougald NK, Jensen WA, Larsen RE, Cao DC y Harris NR (2008) 2991 Effectiveness of nutrient supplement placement for changing beef cow distribution. 2992 Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, vol 63, N°1.
Geraldo A., Pereira A., Titto C.G. and Titto E.A.L. (2012). What do Cattle prefer in a tropical climate: water immersion or artificial shade? J. Life Sci. 6, 1356-1362.
Golluscio R, Giraudo C, Borrelli P, Montes L, Siffredi G, Cechi G, Nakamatsu V y 2998 Escobar J (1999) Utilización de los Recursos Naturales en la Patagonia. Informe 2999 Técnico. En: Consorcio DHV, 80 pp.
Goulart RCD, Corsi M, Bailey DW y Zocchi SS (2008) Cattle Grazing Distribution and 3006 Efficacy of Strategic Mineral Mix Placement in Tropical Brazilian Pastures. 3007 Rangeland Ecology and Management 61:656-660.
Hansen, P. J., 2004. Physiological and cellular adaptations of zebu cattle to thermal stress. Animal Reproduction Science, 83, 349-360.
Herrera, O. (2018) Comportamiento en pastoreo del ganado bovino criollo argentino y Aberdeen Angus ecotipo riojano, en pastizales naturales del chaco árido. Universidad Nacional del Mar de Plata. Balcarce, Argentina.
Hessle, A., Rutter, M., Wallin, K., 2008. Effect of breed, season and pasture moisture gradient on foraging behaviour in cattle on semi-natural grasslands. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 111, 108–119.
Holdridge, L. R. 1996. Ecología basada en zonas de vida. Editorial IICA. San José, Costa Rica. 219 p.
Howery, L. D., F. D. Provenza, R. E. Banner, and C. B. Scott. (1998). Social and environmental factors influence cattle distribution on rangeland. Applied Animal Behavior Science 55:231–244.
Kaufmann, J., Bork, E. W., Blenis, P. V., Alexander, M. J., 2013. Cattle habitat selection and associated habitat characteristSQI under free-range grazing within heterogeneous montane rangelands of Alberta. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 146, 1–10.
Kilgour, R. J., Uetake, K., Ishiwata, T., Melville, G. J. (2012). The behaviour of beef cattle at pasture. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 138, 12-17.
Ku-Vera, J. C.; Briceño, E. G.; Ruiz, A.; Mayo, R.; Ayala, A. J.; Aguilar, C. F. (2014). “Manipulation of the energy metabolism of ruminants in the tropSQI: options for improving meat and milk production and quality”. Cuban J. Agric. Sci. 48(1):43-53.
Laca, E.A., Sokolow, S.H., Galli, J., Cangiano, C. 2010. Allometry and spatial scales of foraging in mammalian herbivores. Ecology Letters. 13:3, 311-320.
Mora-Delgado J, Cibils A, Rubio CM, Peinetti R, Cooper BF, Petersen MK, Cox SH. (2013) how do monitoring cattle movement in a mosaic of wooded and open areas using GPS in conjunction with GIS? Revista Colombiana de Ciencia Animal. 6(1):107-111.
Mora-Delgado J, Nelson N, Fauchille A and Utsumi S. (2016). Application of GPS and GIS to study foraging behavior of dairy cattle. Agronomía Costarricense 40(1): 81-88.
Mora-Delgado, J., Serrano, J.R., Piñeros, R. y Díaz, G. (2018). Use of GPS and GIS for monitoring of cattle´s grazing on a silvipasture of Tolima (Colombia). Rev. Investigaciones Andina No. 36, 20; 23-38.
Nilsen, AR., Skarpe, C., y Moe, S., 2009. La conducta del ganado con respecto a la distancia a los árboles en Muy Muy, Nicaragua. Agroforesteria en las Américas Nº 472009. 63-67p.
Ormaechea S (2019) Patrones de distribución espacial de ovinos en sistemas ganaderos extensivos de Patagonia Sur. Tesis Doctoral. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Argentina. 173. P.
Ormaechea S y Peri P (2015) Landscape heterogeneity influences on sheep habits under extensive grazing management in Southern Patagonia. Livestock Research for Rural Development 27(6).
Owen Smith N (2008) Effects of temporal variability in resources on foraging behaviour. 3186 En: Prince H y Langevelde F (eds) Resource Ecology: Spatial and Temporal DynamSQI 3187 of Foraging. Springer, pp 159-182.
Pentón G. y Blanco F. (2001) Influencia de la sombra de Albizia lebbeck en la composición química del pastizal. Pastos y Forrajes Vol. 24, No. 4, 305-215.
Pezo, D., y Skarpe, C. (2009) ¿Cómo determinar las especies forrajeras que prefieren los animales en una pastura con composición florística compleja? Agroforesteria en las Américas. N° 47, 87-93.
Polanía, Y., Mora, J., Serrano R., Piñeros R., (2013). “Movement in grazing on a silvopastoral system from warm valley of Magdalena tolimense (Colombia)”, Revista Colombiana de Ciencia Animal, 6, No. 1.
Ramírez, I. A. B., 2012. Efecto de la cobertura arbórea sobre el movimiento, comportamiento y preferencia de árboles por vacas lecheras en Rivas, Nicaragua. Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE). Tesis de MSc. Turrialba. pp. 54.
Senft RL, Coughenour MB, Bailey DW, Rittenhouse LR, Sala OE y Swift DM (1987) Large herbivore foraging and ecological hierarchies. BioScience 37:789-799.
Serrano, J.R (2013). Interacción entre cobertura arbórea y comportamiento animal durante las pocas seca y húmeda en pasturas del Magdalena Medio Tolimense. Tesis de Maestría. Universidad Nacional de Colombia- Palmira.137 p.
Serrano, R., Andrade, H., Mora-Delgado, J. (2014) Caracterización de la cobertura arbórea en una pastura del trópico seco en Tolima, Colombia. Agronomía Mesoamericana 25(1):99-110.
Shinde AK, Karim SA, Patnayak BC y Mann JS (1997) Dietary preference and grazing behaviour of sheep on Cenchruscikaris pasture in a semi-arid region of India. Small Ruminant Research 26:119-122.
Stafford-Smith, DM. (1988) Modeling: three approaches to predicting how herbivore impact is distributed in rangelands. New Mexico Agr. Exp. Sta.Reg. Res. Rep. 628, Las Cruces, USA; 1988
Stuth JW (1991) Foraging Behavior. En: Heitschmidt RK y Stuth JW (eds) Grazing 3309 management: An ecological perspective. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon, pp 65- 83.
Tomkins, N., Filmer, M., 2007. GPS tracking to boost sustainability. Rangeland Journal 29, 217-222.
Trotter M. G., Lamb D. W., Hinch G. N. and Guppy C. N. (2010) Global navigation satellite system livestock tracking: system development and data interpretation. Animal Production Science 50(6) 616-623 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN09203.
Utrilla VR, Brizuela MA y Cibils AF (2006) Structural and nutritional heterogeneity of 3329 riparian vegetation in Patagonia (Argentina) in relation to seasonal grazing by sheep. 3330 Journal of Arid Environments 67:661-670.
Valle, A., Velázquez, J., 1980. Importancia del porcentaje de pelaje negro en animales Holstein sobre el proceso adaptativo. Agronomía Tropical 30, 181-200.
Bailey DW (2004) Management strategies for optimal grazing distribution and use of arid rangelands. Journal of Animal Science 82:147-153:2772 - 2773.
Bailey DW, Gross JE, Laca EA, Rittenhouse LR, Coughenour MB, Swift DM y Sims PL 2774 (1996) Mechanisms that result in large herbivore grazing distribution patterns. Journal of Range Management 49:386-400 27752776.
Bailey DW y Welling GR (1999) Modification of cattle grazing distribution with dehydrated molasses supplement. Journal of Range Management 52:575-582.
Bailey DW y Delyn Jensen (2008) Method of Supplementation May Affect Cattle 2787 Grazing Patterns. Rangeland Ecology and Management 61:131-135 2788.
Bailey DW y Provenza FD (2008) Mechanism determining large-herbivore distribution. 2789 En: Prince H y Langevelde F (eds) Resource Ecology: Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Foraging. Springer, pp 7-28.
Bailey DW y VanWagoner HC (2004) Can we improve livestock distribution with 2781 selection? Abstract, Society for Range Management Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, 2782 Utah 2783.
Bailey DW y Welling GR (2007) Evaluation of low moisture blocks and conventional dry mixes for supplementing minerals and modifying cattle grazing patterns. 2785 Rangeland Ecology and Management 60:54-64 2786.
Bailey DW, Welling GR y Miller ET (2001) Cattle use of foothills rangeland near dehydrated molasses supplement. Journal of Range Management 54:338-347.
Bavera, G.A., 2004. Comportamiento etológico de bovinos de carne. Curso de producción bovina de carne. Cap. IV. Facultad Agronomía y Veterinaria. Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto. Córdoba, Argentina.
Brew, M.N.; Myer, R.O.; Hersom, M.J.; Carter, J. N.; Elzo, M.A., Hansen, G.R.; Riley, D.G. (2011). Water intake and factors affecting water intake of growing beef cattle. Livestock Science, 140(1), 297-300.
Brosh, A., Henkin, Z., Orlov, A., Aharoni, Y., 2006. Diet composition and energy balance of cows grazing on Mediterranean woodland. Livestock Science 102, 11–22.
Chambers, A. R. M., Hodgson, J. & Milne, J. A. (1981). Grass and Forage Science 36, 97–105.
Charnov, E. L. 1976. Optimal foraging: the marginal value theorem. Theoretical Population Biology 9:129–136.
Cibils AF y Coughenour MB (2001) Impact of grazing management on the productivity 2907 of cold temperate grasslands of Southern Patagonia-a critical assessment. International 2908 Grassland Congress. Sao Pedro, Sao Paulo, Brasil, pp 807- 811.
Clawson, J. E., 1993. The use of off-stream water developments and various water gap configurations to modify the watering behavior of cattle. MSc Thesis, Oregon State.
Collantes MB y Faggi AM (1999) Los humedales del sur de Sudamérica. En: Malvárez 2924 AI (ed) Tópicos sobre humedales subtropicales y templados de Sudamérica. 2925 UNESCO-MAB-ORCYT. Montevideo, Uruguay, pp 15-26.
Coughenour MB (1991) Spatial components of plant-herbivore interactions in pastoral, 2931 ranching, and native ungulate ecosystems. Journal of range management 44:530-542.
Davis J. D., Darr M. J. Xin H., Harmon J. D. (2011), “Development of a GPS Herd Activity and Well Being Kit (GPS HAWK) to Monitor Cattle Behavior and the Effect of Sample Interval on Travel Distance”, Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering.
Depew, J. J. (2004). Habitat Selection and Movement Patterns of Cattle and white-tailed deer in a temperate savanna. Texas A&M University.
Di Rienzo J.A., Casanoves F., Balzarini M.G., Gonzalez L., Tablada M., Robledo C.W. InfoStat versión 2015. Grupo InfoStat, FCA, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Argentina. URL http://www.infostat.com.ar.
Galloso, M. A., 2007. Comportamiento alimentario de novillas Siboney de Cuba en un sistema silvopastoril. Universidad De Matanzas Camilo Cienfuegos.
Ganskopp (2001) Manipulating cattle distribution with salt and water in large arid land 2986 pastures: GPS/GIS assessment. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 73:251-262.
George MR, McDougald NK, Jensen WA, Larsen RE, Cao DC y Harris NR (2008) 2991 Effectiveness of nutrient supplement placement for changing beef cow distribution. 2992 Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, vol 63, N°1.
Geraldo A., Pereira A., Titto C.G. and Titto E.A.L. (2012). What do Cattle prefer in a tropical climate: water immersion or artificial shade? J. Life Sci. 6, 1356-1362.
Golluscio R, Giraudo C, Borrelli P, Montes L, Siffredi G, Cechi G, Nakamatsu V y 2998 Escobar J (1999) Utilización de los Recursos Naturales en la Patagonia. Informe 2999 Técnico. En: Consorcio DHV, 80 pp.
Goulart RCD, Corsi M, Bailey DW y Zocchi SS (2008) Cattle Grazing Distribution and 3006 Efficacy of Strategic Mineral Mix Placement in Tropical Brazilian Pastures. 3007 Rangeland Ecology and Management 61:656-660.
Hansen, P. J., 2004. Physiological and cellular adaptations of zebu cattle to thermal stress. Animal Reproduction Science, 83, 349-360.
Herrera, O. (2018) Comportamiento en pastoreo del ganado bovino criollo argentino y Aberdeen Angus ecotipo riojano, en pastizales naturales del chaco árido. Universidad Nacional del Mar de Plata. Balcarce, Argentina.
Hessle, A., Rutter, M., Wallin, K., 2008. Effect of breed, season and pasture moisture gradient on foraging behaviour in cattle on semi-natural grasslands. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 111, 108–119.
Holdridge, L. R. 1996. Ecología basada en zonas de vida. Editorial IICA. San José, Costa Rica. 219 p.
Howery, L. D., F. D. Provenza, R. E. Banner, and C. B. Scott. (1998). Social and environmental factors influence cattle distribution on rangeland. Applied Animal Behavior Science 55:231–244.
Kaufmann, J., Bork, E. W., Blenis, P. V., Alexander, M. J., 2013. Cattle habitat selection and associated habitat characteristSQI under free-range grazing within heterogeneous montane rangelands of Alberta. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 146, 1–10.
Kilgour, R. J., Uetake, K., Ishiwata, T., Melville, G. J. (2012). The behaviour of beef cattle at pasture. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 138, 12-17.
Ku-Vera, J. C.; Briceño, E. G.; Ruiz, A.; Mayo, R.; Ayala, A. J.; Aguilar, C. F. (2014). “Manipulation of the energy metabolism of ruminants in the tropSQI: options for improving meat and milk production and quality”. Cuban J. Agric. Sci. 48(1):43-53.
Laca, E.A., Sokolow, S.H., Galli, J., Cangiano, C. 2010. Allometry and spatial scales of foraging in mammalian herbivores. Ecology Letters. 13:3, 311-320.
Mora-Delgado J, Cibils A, Rubio CM, Peinetti R, Cooper BF, Petersen MK, Cox SH. (2013) how do monitoring cattle movement in a mosaic of wooded and open areas using GPS in conjunction with GIS? Revista Colombiana de Ciencia Animal. 6(1):107-111.
Mora-Delgado J, Nelson N, Fauchille A and Utsumi S. (2016). Application of GPS and GIS to study foraging behavior of dairy cattle. Agronomía Costarricense 40(1): 81-88.
Mora-Delgado, J., Serrano, J.R., Piñeros, R. y Díaz, G. (2018). Use of GPS and GIS for monitoring of cattle´s grazing on a silvipasture of Tolima (Colombia). Rev. Investigaciones Andina No. 36, 20; 23-38.
Nilsen, AR., Skarpe, C., y Moe, S., 2009. La conducta del ganado con respecto a la distancia a los árboles en Muy Muy, Nicaragua. Agroforesteria en las Américas Nº 472009. 63-67p.
Ormaechea S (2019) Patrones de distribución espacial de ovinos en sistemas ganaderos extensivos de Patagonia Sur. Tesis Doctoral. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Argentina. 173. P.
Ormaechea S y Peri P (2015) Landscape heterogeneity influences on sheep habits under extensive grazing management in Southern Patagonia. Livestock Research for Rural Development 27(6).
Owen Smith N (2008) Effects of temporal variability in resources on foraging behaviour. 3186 En: Prince H y Langevelde F (eds) Resource Ecology: Spatial and Temporal DynamSQI 3187 of Foraging. Springer, pp 159-182.
Pentón G. y Blanco F. (2001) Influencia de la sombra de Albizia lebbeck en la composición química del pastizal. Pastos y Forrajes Vol. 24, No. 4, 305-215.
Pezo, D., y Skarpe, C. (2009) ¿Cómo determinar las especies forrajeras que prefieren los animales en una pastura con composición florística compleja? Agroforesteria en las Américas. N° 47, 87-93.
Polanía, Y., Mora, J., Serrano R., Piñeros R., (2013). “Movement in grazing on a silvopastoral system from warm valley of Magdalena tolimense (Colombia)”, Revista Colombiana de Ciencia Animal, 6, No. 1.
Ramírez, I. A. B., 2012. Efecto de la cobertura arbórea sobre el movimiento, comportamiento y preferencia de árboles por vacas lecheras en Rivas, Nicaragua. Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE). Tesis de MSc. Turrialba. pp. 54.
Senft RL, Coughenour MB, Bailey DW, Rittenhouse LR, Sala OE y Swift DM (1987) Large herbivore foraging and ecological hierarchies. BioScience 37:789-799.
Serrano, J.R (2013). Interacción entre cobertura arbórea y comportamiento animal durante las pocas seca y húmeda en pasturas del Magdalena Medio Tolimense. Tesis de Maestría. Universidad Nacional de Colombia- Palmira.137 p.
Serrano, R., Andrade, H., Mora-Delgado, J. (2014) Caracterización de la cobertura arbórea en una pastura del trópico seco en Tolima, Colombia. Agronomía Mesoamericana 25(1):99-110.
Shinde AK, Karim SA, Patnayak BC y Mann JS (1997) Dietary preference and grazing behaviour of sheep on Cenchruscikaris pasture in a semi-arid region of India. Small Ruminant Research 26:119-122.
Stafford-Smith, DM. (1988) Modeling: three approaches to predicting how herbivore impact is distributed in rangelands. New Mexico Agr. Exp. Sta.Reg. Res. Rep. 628, Las Cruces, USA; 1988
Stuth JW (1991) Foraging Behavior. En: Heitschmidt RK y Stuth JW (eds) Grazing 3309 management: An ecological perspective. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon, pp 65- 83.
Tomkins, N., Filmer, M., 2007. GPS tracking to boost sustainability. Rangeland Journal 29, 217-222.
Trotter M. G., Lamb D. W., Hinch G. N. and Guppy C. N. (2010) Global navigation satellite system livestock tracking: system development and data interpretation. Animal Production Science 50(6) 616-623 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN09203.
Utrilla VR, Brizuela MA y Cibils AF (2006) Structural and nutritional heterogeneity of 3329 riparian vegetation in Patagonia (Argentina) in relation to seasonal grazing by sheep. 3330 Journal of Arid Environments 67:661-670.
Valle, A., Velázquez, J., 1980. Importancia del porcentaje de pelaje negro en animales Holstein sobre el proceso adaptativo. Agronomía Tropical 30, 181-200.
Published
2022-06-16
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Castilla, A. L., Mora-Delgado, J., Rodríguez-Márquez, M., & Lopez, J. (2022). Cattle movement as a function of some biotic and abiotic factors in a tropical pasture. Revista De Ciencias Agrícolas, 39(2), 69–88. https://doi.org/10.22267/rcia.223902.184
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